Analysis Of Karl Marx And The Communist Manifesto

Opening famously with â€Å"the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles† is Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ The Communist Manifesto. Published in 1848, the political pamphlet exercised the belief that communism would dispel capitalism and perpetual class struggles caused by the bourgeoisie, which had remained unchanged as modes of production evolved. Stemming from its origin â€Å"common,† communism proposes the idea of a post-capitalist, classless society where all property is publicly owned and the means of production provide a stable economic base for all. However, despite its many shortcomings, communism offered passing hope to many of those suffering under capitalism. The proposition of communism is outlined†¦show more content†¦This industrial explosion resulted in a progression in navigation, trade, and communication, further advancing the bourgeoisie’s political and social power. In saying that â€Å"the modern bourgeoisie is itself the product of a long course of development, of a series of revolutions in the modes of production and of exchange,† Marx implies that the bourgeoisie was an upshot of capitalism, which in itself was the supersession of the feudal system. The abolition of feudalism, which was a system in which land and security were exchanged for labor and military protection, was met by Marx’s ironic praise. He suggested that exploitation through egotism — usually masked by religious and political pretexts — is the most significant repercussion of destroying feudalism. As a result, other feudal classes such as the aristocracy and the peasants faded into obscurity. The emergence of capitalism had reduced human nature to merely a means of obtaining money through either professional or hereditary relations; the majority of connections one obtained in a capitalist society were vehicles for promoting one’s own wealth and prosperity. Marx attributes the bourgeoisie’s drive to create factories and transportation to the need to expand the lengths to which its power can reach: â€Å"the need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connectionsShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx804 Words   |  4 PagesSince the beginning of civilization there has always been a clash between the upper class and lower class. Karl Marx illustrates this at the beginning of Communist Manifesto by listing out the relationships of social classes: â€Å"Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Marx 14). With these social ranks came forth the Bourgeoisie and Proletariat. The Bourgeoisie being the greedy, money grabbing upper class and the ProletariatRead MoreAnalysis Of Karl Marx And The Co mmunist Manifesto1618 Words   |  7 Pages Opening with the famous statement â€Å"The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles† is Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ The Communist Manifesto. Published in 1848, the political pamphlet exercised the belief that communism would dispel capitalism and perpetual class struggles caused by the bourgeoisie, which had remained unchanged as modes of production evolved. Stemming from its origin â€Å"common,† communism proposes the idea of a post-capitalist, classless society whereRead MoreSummary and Critical Analysis of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx2260 Words   |  9 PagesSummary I. Bourgeois/Proletarians Individuals have been classified on the basis of prestige acquired mainly through economic success and the accumulation of their wealth throughout history. The Communist Manifesto begins with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels discussing the differences of the Bourgeois from the Proletarians. The proletariats are exploited and seen as capital, rather than equals by the oppressed bourgeoisie. With the bourgeoisie being a dominant force in the population, they eventuallyRead MoreAnalysis of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels711 Words   |  3 PagesCommunist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels explains the good parts of the communist system and how it should still apply to the future. They also predicted how the Communist Manifesto can stabilize the class structure without conflict. They talks about how especially through the increase in productivity, the power of the bourgeois class increases. They argues that the social class struggle is the reason for hist orical developments and if there are no more classes then there is no reasonRead More Karl Marx and His Radical Views Essay1169 Words   |  5 PagesKarl Marx and His Radical Views Karl Marx[i] Karl Marx is among the most important and influential of all modern philosophers who expressed his ideas on humans in nature. According to the University of Dayton, â€Å"the human person is part of a larger history of life on this planet. Through technology humans have the power to have an immense effect on that life.†[ii] The people of his time found that the impact of the Industrial Revolution would further man’s success within thisRead MoreThe Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels Essay929 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"The Communist Manifesto† – the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels was published on February 21, 1848. This book is the first document of scientific communism and the first program of the international communist organizations and parties. It is the most systematic work of all thoughts and great teachings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. â€Å"The Communist Manifesto† consists of the main statement s of the materialistic conception of history, the impartial laws of social development, the laws ofRead MoreKarl Marx And Robert B. Reich And Their View On Economics1584 Words   |  7 PagesDiscussion: Karl Marx and Robert B. Reich and their view on Economics† â€Å"All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority. The proletariat, the lowest stratum of our present society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up without the whole superincumbent strata of official society being sprung into the air.† (Page 222). Karl Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto. ThisRead MoreKarl Marx and Frederick Engel Essay947 Words   |  4 PagesI believe that Karl Marx and Frederick Engel and W.E.B Du Bois are both right. They both had one specific goal in mind; social equality. Karl Marx and Frederick Engel wanted to close the gap between the ruling class and the working class. The working class were being overworked and underpaid while working in factories. Marx and Engels wanted equality in the society by advocating for a communist society, where all people have equal access to resources. W.E.B Du Bois wanted Afric an Americans to haveRead MoreThe Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels831 Words   |  4 PagesAdam Hilt November 4, 2015 COMM 8200 Analysis of The Communist Manifesto A spectre is haunting Europe--the spectre of Communism. The Communist Manifesto reflects an attempt by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to explain the goals of Communism, as well as the theory behind the movement. Marx sees all of Europe allied against the idea of communism and consistently demonizes it and its followers. This caused the Communists to assemble in London and create this Manifesto in order to make their views publicRead MoreConflict Theory, Karl Marx, and the Communist Manifesto Essay1321 Words   |  6 PagesConflict Theory, Karl Marx, and The Communist Manifesto In order to understand Marx a few terms need to be defined. The first is Bourgeoisie; these are the Capitalists and they are the employers of wage laborers, and the owners of the means of production. The means of production includes the physical instruments of production such as the machines, and tools, as well as the methods of working (skills, division of labor). The Proletariat is the class of wage-laborers, they do not have their own Analysis Of Karl Marx And The Communist Manifesto Opening with the famous statement â€Å"The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles† is Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ The Communist Manifesto. Published in 1848, the political pamphlet exercised the belief that communism would dispel capitalism and perpetual class struggles caused by the bourgeoisie, which had remained unchanged as modes of production evolved. Stemming from its origin â€Å"common,† communism proposes the idea of a post-capitalist, classless society where its property is publicly owned and its means of production provide a stable economic base for all. The proposition of this strategy is outlined throughout The Communist Manifesto, starting with the criticism of the relationship between the†¦show more content†¦This industrial explosion resulted in a progression in navigation, trade, and communication, further advancing the bourgeoisie’s political power as well. As a result, other feudal classe s such as the aristocracy and the peasants faded into obscurity. In saying that â€Å"the modern bourgeoisie is itself the product of a long course of development, of a series of revolutions in the modes of production and of exchange,† Marx implies that the bourgeoisie was an upshot of capitalism, which in itself was the supersession of feudalism. The bourgeoisie, in having abolished the feudal system in preparation for socialism, was met by Marx’s ironic praise. He suggests that exploitation through egotism — usually masked by religious and political pretexts — is the most pertinent repercussion of destroying feudalism. The emergence of capitalism had reduced human nature to merely a means of obtaining money through either professional or hereditary relations; the majority of connections one had in a capitalist society were vehicles for promoting one’s own wealth and prosperity. Marx attributes the bourgeoisie’s drive to create factories and transportation to the need to expand its empire and therefore the lengths to which its power can reach by saying that â€Å"the need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connections everywhere.†With this, owners mustShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx804 Words   |  4 PagesSince the beginning of civilization there has always been a clash between the upper class and lower class. Karl Marx illustrates this at the beginning of Communist Manifesto by listing out the relationships of social classes: â€Å"Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Marx 14). With these social ranks came forth the Bourgeoisie and Proletariat. The Bourgeoisie being the greedy, money g rabbing upper class and the ProletariatRead MoreAnalysis Of Karl Marx And The Communist Manifesto1898 Words   |  8 Pages Opening famously with â€Å"the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles† is Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ The Communist Manifesto. Published in 1848, the political pamphlet exercised the belief that communism would dispel capitalism and perpetual class struggles caused by the bourgeoisie, which had remained unchanged as modes of production evolved. Stemming from its origin â€Å"common,† communism proposes the idea of a post-capitalist, classless society where all propertyRead MoreSummary and Critical Analysis of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx2260 Words   |  9 PagesSummary I. Bourgeois/Proletarians Individuals have been classified on the basis of prestige acquired mainly through economic success and the accumulation of their wealth throughout history. The Communist Manifesto begins with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels discussing the differences of the Bourgeois from the Proletarians. The proletariats are exploited and seen as capital, rather than equals by the oppressed bourgeoisie. With the bourgeoisie being a dominant force in the population, they eventuallyRead MoreAnalysis of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels711 Words   |  3 PagesCommunist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels explains the good parts of the communist system and how it should still apply to the future. They also predicted how the Communist Manifesto can stabilize the class structure without conflict. They talks about how especially through the increase in productivity, the power of the bourgeois class increases. They argues that the social class struggle is the reason for hist orical developments and if there are no more classes then there is no reasonRead More Karl Marx and His Radical Views Essay1169 Words   |  5 PagesKarl Marx and His Radical Views Karl Marx[i] Karl Marx is among the most important and influential of all modern philosophers who expressed his ideas on humans in nature. According to the University of Dayton, â€Å"the human person is part of a larger history of life on this planet. Through technology humans have the power to have an immense effect on that life.†[ii] The people of his time found that the impact of the Industrial Revolution would further man’s success within thisRead MoreThe Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels Essay929 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"The Communist Manifesto† – the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels was published on February 21, 1848. This book is the first document of scientific communism and the first program of the international communist organizations and parties. It is the most systematic work of all thoughts and great teachings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. â€Å"The Communist Manifesto† consists of the main statement s of the materialistic conception of history, the impartial laws of social development, the laws ofRead MoreKarl Marx And Robert B. Reich And Their View On Economics1584 Words   |  7 PagesDiscussion: Karl Marx and Robert B. Reich and their view on Economics† â€Å"All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority. The proletariat, the lowest stratum of our present society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up without the whole superincumbent strata of official society being sprung into the air.† (Page 222). Karl Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto. ThisRead MoreKarl Marx and Frederick Engel Essay947 Words   |  4 PagesI believe that Karl Marx and Frederick Engel and W.E.B Du Bois are both right. They both had one specific goal in mind; social equality. Karl Marx and Frederick Engel wanted to close the gap between the ruling class and the working class. The working class were being overworked and underpaid while working in factories. Marx and Engels wanted equality in the society by advocating for a communist society, where all people have equal access to resources. W.E.B Du Bois wanted Afric an Americans to haveRead MoreThe Communist Manifesto By Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels831 Words   |  4 PagesAdam Hilt November 4, 2015 COMM 8200 Analysis of The Communist Manifesto A spectre is haunting Europe--the spectre of Communism. The Communist Manifesto reflects an attempt by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to explain the goals of Communism, as well as the theory behind the movement. Marx sees all of Europe allied against the idea of communism and consistently demonizes it and its followers. This caused the Communists to assemble in London and create this Manifesto in order to make their views publicRead MoreConflict Theory, Karl Marx, and the Communist Manifesto Essay1321 Words   |  6 PagesConflict Theory, Karl Marx, and The Communist Manifesto In order to understand Marx a few terms need to be defined. The first is Bourgeoisie; these are the Capitalists and they are the employers of wage laborers, and the owners of the means of production. The means of production includes the physical instruments of production such as the machines, and tools, as well as the methods of working (skills, division of labor). The Proletariat is the class of wage-laborers, they do not have their own

The Failure Of The Philadelphia And Reading Railroad

During the years of 1893 to 1898, the United States went through an economic depression that severely damaged the economy. The final days of the Harrison administrations consisted of the financial failure of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad in January of 1893, the United States was in deep trouble. After the financial railroad of Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, the National Cordage Co. Railroad failed in May, the Erie Railroad in July, the Northern Pacific in August, the Union Pacific in October and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad in December (Watkins, n.d.). There was an average of 24 businesses failing per day in the month of May (Schoonover, LaFeber, n.d.). In addition, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act and the â€Å"Billion Dollar Congress† caused the nations gold reserved to decline as the government began to use a bimetallic monetary system.. The nations reserves dropped under $100 million after President Cleveland was sworn in March of 1893. People b egan to panic and this led to a plunge in the stock market and European investors began to pull their funds from the United States frightened by the weakening economy. This led to a four year depression in which 15,000 companies and 600 banks closed with about one billion dollars worth of bonds defaulted (Schoonover, LaFeber, n.d.). Even though manufacturing was growing much more rapidly than agriculture in the 1880s, data shows that farmers had a prosperous decade. The tables below will show the increaseShow MoreRelated Parking Lots, the Story of Urban Redevelopment in Callowhill1877 Words   |  8 PagesAs I drive southbound from Trenton into Philadelphia on I95 South it is impossible to avoid potholes, constant construction and terrible drivers. The frustration seems to mount significantly throughout the journey until off in the distance the jutting of skyscrapers can be seen cutting through the clouds, Philadelphia, it’s so close now. I take the Callowhill exit and I know I’ve made it home, from the exit to my apartment is merely a ten minute drive. Those ten minutes are more than enough toRead MoreSigns, Symbols and Signals of the Underground Railroad Essay3216 Words   |  13 PagesSigns, Symbols and Signals of the Underground Railroad A journey of hundreds of miles lies before you, through swamp, forest and mountain pass. Your supplies are meager, only what can be comfortably carried so as not to slow your progress to the Promised Land – Canada. The stars and coded messages for guidance, you set out through the night, the path illuminated by the intermittent flash of lightning. Without a map and no real knowledge of the surrounding area, your mind races before youRead MoreThe Pullman Strike Of 18941594 Words   |  7 Pagescircumstances kept aggravating the situation. A major part of this storm was the Panic of 1893, an economic depression that lasted from 1893 to 1897. It began after the failure of two of the nation’s major employers, the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad and the National Cordage Companies. Suddenly banks, steel mills, and railroads started going bankrupt. An estimated 15,000 businesses closed and unemployment rates skyrocketed to 25% nationwide. This depression forced Pullman to reduce wages for hisRead MoreThe Beginning Of The Second Industrialization Era1542 Words   |  7 Pagesbarely 109,000; thirty years later, it swelled to 1.1 million†. (Text) With the construction of a vast railroad system moving goods,cattle and people was a lot easier than ever. After 1880 American cities boomed, power cable cars replaced the horse car, and after the invention of electricity they were replaced too with streetcars and trolleys. Subways were constructed in New York Boston and Philadelphia, in order to prevent traffic jams. People with similar racial or ethnic backgrounds clustered togetherRead More History of Accounting Essay3089 Words   |  13 Pagestime period (which lasted until 500 BC), Sumeria was a theocracy whose rulers held most land and animals in trust for their religious beliefs, giving drive to their record-keeping efforts. Furthermore, the legal codes, which emerged, penalized the failure to memorialize transactions. The renowned Code of Ham murabi, handed down during the first dynasty of Babylonia (2285 - 2242 BC), for example, required that an agent selling goods for a merchant give the merchant a price quotation under seal or faceRead MoreJohn D. Rockefeller Monster Monopolist or Marketplace Hero5797 Words   |  24 Pagesread â€Å"Suggestions for the Student† and the Introductory Essay. Give them copies of pages 7–9. Ask them to read the instructions and then read the introductory essay on the topic. The time line gives them additional information on that topic. This reading could be done in class or as a homework assignment. Make copies of the worksheets and the pages with the sources. Ask students to study the background information on each source and the source itself. Then have them take notes on the sources usingRead MoreHealthcare Essay18323 Words   |  74 Pagesneighbors in the community. Missing Institutional Core In the United States, no widespread development of hospitals occurred before the 1880s. A few isolated hospitals were either built or developed in rented private houses in large cities, such as Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and St. Louis. By contrast, general hospital expansion began much before the 1800s in France and Britain (Stevens 1971). In Europe, medical professionals were closely associated with hospitals. New advancesRead MoreRomanticism and Modernism as Strange Bedfellows: A Fresh Look at Jack Kerouacs On the Road12240 Words   |  49 Pagesset the stage for a romantic foray that gave these freedom seekers a voice to go with their cause. Sal’s romantic America of pioneers and Western freedoms appears to coincide with an America of desolation and fear. In his essay, â€Å"Peasant Dreams: Reading On the Road,† Mark Richardson finds the timing of the novel’s publication apropos. The romantic spirit of the novel gives it a positive thread. â€Å"On the Road is tragically optimistic—a fine figure for the 1950s, a haunted, hopeful, doomed decade†Read MoreMGT1FOM Key Management Theorists26579 Words   |  107 Pagesthat most research focused on social unrest and reform and included ‘‘practically no reference to formal organization as the concrete social process by which social action is largely accomplished.’’ In Barnard’s opinion, social failures throughout history were due to the failure to provide for human cooperation in formal organizations. Barnard said that the ‘‘formal organization is that kind of cooperation among men that is conscious, deliberate, and purposeful.’’ Barnard believed that by examining formalRead MoreAmerican Civil Rights Movement Essay15820 Words   |  64 PagesAmerican Constitution: the Story of Making of the Constitution. In 1764 the ‘sugar act’ was enforced in America, according to which duties were imposed on coffee, wine, silk and other goods. The first Continental Congress was combined in Philadelphia (1774) A list of grievances against the crown. All this conflicts led the revolutionary future of the colonists. May 1775 – the second Continental Congress. Decisions: to go to war, call into continental service, to lead the army (George Washington)

Service Marketing

Question: Explain how the core product and supplementary services are integrated in the context of an overnight hotel stay. Answer: In a hotel industry, in order to capture all possible opportunities in the market, many hotels and resorts depend upon services like accommodation, entertainment and gambling areas. Many hotels offer or focus mainly on accommodation through their rooms and services related to accommodation since maximum of the revenue gets generated through selling rooms to the customers (Lovelock, 2011). The hotel can also add range of other services as well that can help in increasing the stream of revenue like bars, shops, spas, laundry services, business centre and banquet halls and many more. Among all the services it is important to understand the core products, facilitating and many supporting products (Lovelock, 2011). Core products or services are the one who bring most of the revenue so rooms services or division is the core products for the hotels (Baker, 2016). Core product in general can be defined as a basic form of product and they are the main reason for purchasing the product for the customer from the businesses (Lovelock and Patterson, 2015). In case of hotels and especially overall night hotel stay, the core feature in terms of product or service is hotels rooms that consumers can accommodate for specific time (Nieves, 2016). There are many additional services which are called as peripheral services that help in explaining plus services beside the core service which many organisations offers to capture a competitive advantage in the market place. There are many supplementary products as well which basically assisted the customer in consuming the product in a more wholesome manner (Lovelock and Patterson, 2015). Hotels, in this case usually offers a set of products like customer services or bars or restaurants and online reservation facilities as well. In order to attain a competitive edge or advantage businesses also offers many supporting products that adds in the value provided by core product or services like twenty four seven room services or free newspaper for business travellers or concierge service and many more (Lovelock and Patterson, 2015). Therefore, it can be concluded that the core product for a hotel for overnight stay can be the room and in addition to this the overnight rental which will catch the attention of the customers (Lu and Tseng, 2010). The main components are quality of service provided, scheduling, and nature of the main procedure and the role of consumption for customer in the room. Supplementary services can be an added value to the core products which can be parking or as discussed online reservation and also a complimentary breakfast. Delivery of both kind of services core and supplementary is very crucial and it is important to use various mode like electronic which is through hotel employee, or by the customer (Lu and Tseng, 2010). The use of phone or payments of TV are usually added to the main bill of the room and room service and check in facility are provided by the employees. Reference Baker, M. and Magnini, V.P., 2016. The evolution of services marketing, hospitality marketing and building the constituency model for hospitality marketing. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28(8). Lovelock, C., 2011.Services marketing: People, technology, strategy. Pearson Education India. Lovelock, C. and Patterson, P., 2015.Services marketing. Pearson Australia. Lu, I.Y. and Tseng, C.J., 2010. A study of the service innovation activities of tourist hotels in Taiwan.International Journal of Organizational Innovation (Online),3(1), p.156. Nieves, J. and Diaz-Meneses, G., 2016. Antecedents and outcomes of marketing innovation: an empirical analysis in the hotel industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28(8).

Global Economic Crisis-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignement

Question: Write a report on Globalization and/or the Current Global Economic Crisis. Answer: The current global economic scenario has been experiencing the implications of an international phenomenon known as the Globalization. The term globalization indicates towards a more open and interconnected global framework, which facilitates the free and easy transfer of goods and services across different countries. As can be gauged from the notion of the term of globalization, the phenomenon is expected to facilitate international trade considerably and is also expected to facilitate the internal cost effectiveness of those industries of the countries in which the country experiences comparative advantages in production, thereby taking the concerned economies on the path of development (Beck, 2015, pp 9-10). However, Globalization, though is expected to have positive effects on the overall international economy, it is however expected to have several negative implications on those countries which are developing or are at low stages of development and in which the condition of the economies are fragile. This may happen because in most of such economies the industrial sectors are either almost non-existent or are at infant state. In such a scenario, Globalization, by opening the countries to entry of foreign efficient companies who can pose a serious threat to the growth and expansion of the domestic industries (Kaplinsky, 2013). Thus, it can be expected that the Globalization may have a distorted and skewed effect on the overall scenario of international economics as the benefits are mainly expected to be accrued to the developed countries. However, the poor and low developed countries face the threat of losing out economic power and growth aspects which may hamper their growth in the long run. The paper tries to analyze the pros and cons of Globalization in this aspect. References Beck, U. (2015).What is globalization?. John Wiley Sons, 9-10. Kaplinsky, R. (2013).Globalization, poverty and inequality: Between a rock and a hard place. John Wiley Sons.

Least Restrictive Environment Essays - Special Education

Least Restrictive Environment Although the ideas and reasons for inclusive education are very noble and can have a positive effect on many disabled students, mandating inclusion for all disabled students denies some the opportunity to appropriately learn in the least restrictive environment (LRE) as required by law. The fight for inclusive education has made enormous gains from when the National Association of Retarded Children was established in 1950 to 1990 when the public law called the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), P.L. 94-142, was revised. Educational systems have moved from not providing education at all for the disabled to providing schools for the disabled separate from non-disabled students. Recently "normal" schools have been practicing inclusion and have free rein to determine exactly how. The problem facing policy makers today is whether or not all disabled children should be inclusioned. If the policy makers would just observe the disabled students being inclusioned and ignore all the rhetoric being presented to them, they will find that not all disabled children benefit from inclusion. On July 13,1996, Omer Zak compiled several articles the deaf and professionals who work with the deaf had submitted to him and presented them on the Internet under the title Deaf Persons and Experts Speak Out Against Inclusion. One of the writings submitted was entitled "Interpreter Isn't Enough!" written by Leah Hager Cohen. The author is an interpreter for an eleventh grade deaf student that is being inclusioned in a regular school. Cohen explains how the deaf student will sit quietly by herself before class begins while the rest of the students are socializing and interacting with each other. The piece goes on to explain how the deaf student must look at the interpreter during class in order to receive the lesson being presented by the teacher. When the student looks takes her eyes off the interpreter to write in her notes the interpreter must stop signing. When the student looks back to the interpreter she begins signing again. The more often the student stops to write in her notes the farther behind the teacher the interpreter gets. As the interpreter falls behind she must try to catch up causing a loss of information. If the teacher adds a visual aid such as a map or a chart, the student must concentrate on three things causing her to fall even farther behind. The deaf student rarely has the opportunity to be the one to answer a question asked by the teacher due to the delay caused by using an interpreter. Before the interpreter even gets the question signed another student has answered it. Cohen also explains that while a teacher will ask her how the student is doing many teachers will decline an invitation to ask the student herself via the interpreter. That declination has a tendency to alienate the deaf student even more. Joe Murray also contributed an article to Zak. Murray is a deaf person who was fully "inclusioned" throughout his academic career up and including college. Murray was by most standards a very successful student. He participated in sports and other extra curricular activities along with going to Europe as an exchange student. Murray explains how in the mist of all his success he felt he was not living up to his potential and could not do so out side the deaf community. Murray had to make a concentrated effort at everything he did where as if he was in an environment with his deaf peers the flow of information and activity would have happened more naturally. One of the biggest argument supporters of full inclusion try to present is the fact that disabled students and non-disabled students will have the opportunity to socially interact with each other. It is hoped that this interaction will break down the prejudices and misconceptions people have about the disabled. In the case of a deaf student the opposite holds true. In a school for the deaf the students can communicate and interact freely without any restrictions. When a deaf child is placed in a school for the hearing that child is isolated from the rest of her classmates. In order for successful learning to take place a student must feel valued and comfortable in the classroom (Ormrod). If a deaf child is isolated from her classmates due to the lack of communication she will never gain the feeling of being valued or comfortable. The information processing abilities of students must be taken into consideration when placing them in any academic situation. Students need time to be able to

Free Essays on TV Receiver

The programs that we watch on television have had a major sociological impact on us particularly from the 1960’s to the 1990’s. However this programming would have had little impact on us without the continued development of the television receiver and it’s associated peripherals and technology developments. Television receivers have been called â€Å"idiot boxes†, â€Å"boob tubes†, and other less than flattering names. But do these names apply to the device itself or to the programming shown on these devices? In order to understand the impact of these devices, it is best to review a short history of the invention and development of television. The first television was invented by Philo Farnsworth in 1928. This TV was based on the same technology we utilize today, the cathode ray tube. In 1936, at the New York Worlds Fair, RCA Corporation demonstrated the first commercial broadcast of TV with the remarks of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at the Worlds Fair opening ceremony. At that time there were less than 2000 televisions in the broadcast area around the New York metropolitan area, most of those in the hands of RCA executives or wealthy private individuals. Beginning in 1940, RCA began production of the first commercially available TV receivers, but was forced to halt production in 1942 because the materials used in the manufacturing of TV’s were required for the war effort.... Free Essays on TV Receiver Free Essays on TV Receiver The programs that we watch on television have had a major sociological impact on us particularly from the 1960’s to the 1990’s. However this programming would have had little impact on us without the continued development of the television receiver and it’s associated peripherals and technology developments. Television receivers have been called â€Å"idiot boxes†, â€Å"boob tubes†, and other less than flattering names. But do these names apply to the device itself or to the programming shown on these devices? In order to understand the impact of these devices, it is best to review a short history of the invention and development of television. The first television was invented by Philo Farnsworth in 1928. This TV was based on the same technology we utilize today, the cathode ray tube. In 1936, at the New York Worlds Fair, RCA Corporation demonstrated the first commercial broadcast of TV with the remarks of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at the Worlds Fair opening ceremony. At that time there were less than 2000 televisions in the broadcast area around the New York metropolitan area, most of those in the hands of RCA executives or wealthy private individuals. Beginning in 1940, RCA began production of the first commercially available TV receivers, but was forced to halt production in 1942 because the materials used in the manufacturing of TV’s were required for the war effort....

Point of View Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Point of View - Essay Example the reader does not get to know the name of Dee’s male companion because â€Å"after I tripped over it†¦he told me to just call him Hakim-a-barber.† It is also not clear whether the man is a barber or not because the narrator does not ask. Moreover, the readers cannot glean much about the relationship between Dee and Hakim-a-barber and where they have been before appearing on the scene. On the other hand, the first person’s point of view allows the readers to get into the story as they are able to see the world from the narrator’s perspective. A different type of narration, the third person, can alter the meaning of the story. It would have allowed the author to pursue multiple storylines; thus, giving the reader a broader views of the story. For example, it would have enabled the author to explore Dee’s life and by so doing, the readers would have been able to learn more about Dee’s companion. The narrator says â€Å"You must belong to those beef-cattle people down the road.† The readers may not be familiar with the kind of people that live â€Å"down the road†. The third person’s point of view would have allowed the author more room for shedding light on the beef-cattle people down the

Investigator training should focus on the structure of an Essay

Investigator training should focus on the structure of an investigation rather than the skill of the Investigator Examine this statement - Essay Example As a result, investigator training has become a critical component in preparing the investigators for their paramount role and duty in society. However, given the scenario in modern environment, it can be noted that, the role played by investigators will continue to evolve and this particular aspect will greatly affect the level, nature, content, and context of training such investigators should have. Therefore, even as training of investigators remains critical and important, the question being asked is whether the training methodology should put more focus on the structure of an investigation or on the skills of the investigator. Subsequent discussions will try to examine and analyse the statement in a deeper understanding and conceptualization. Investigators have been found to be important professionals in the dispensation of numerous activities in new world (Chandler, 2009). This is so, given that, the modern world is characterized by myriad of issues and challenges. The social world and overall human interaction is no longer at peace, since there are increased reports of terrorism activities, accidents of diverse natures, thefts of different types and magnitudes, frauds of any kind, and all sought of evil activities in society. The occurrence of these activities impacts heavily and negatively on different social institutions, actors, structures, and systems. As a result, there has been the need to identify the various ways to deal with such problems. Part of solution to these problems has been found to lie with investigators. Investigators, in their capacity as professionals, are perceived to have knowledge, skills, and sometimes experience to help other professionals identify, describe, evaluate, and analyze different a ctivities that qualify to be investigated. Michaelides-Mateou and Mateou (2010) study and analyze investigators specializing in aviation

COMPANY LAW 402 ASSIGNMENT Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

COMPANY LAW 402 - Assignment Example We instituted legal research into this matter with a view of determining the suitability and legality of starting a Picture Framing business in Australia. We believe this goes towards the very crux of your matter. Further, we would like to state that our services can only be of a legal nature on this matter. It is your duty to seek out qualified professionals who will assess the proposed business venture while looking at its location and profitability in order to determine whether it will be a going concern. Due Diligence It would be remise of our duty as consultants if we did not advice you that it is your duty look into the financial and commercial aspects of this business venture. This is because a business wherever it is instituted needs to have a strong financial basis that will see its survival and development. This should be done so as to avoid a situation where you have overlooked the financial aspects of this venture. That would be catastrophic. You should undertake this res earch through professional help. Ownership Before starting on any business, you need to determine whether or not the company structure is right for the particular company, decide what name the company is to assume, its mode of operation, the legal obligations that are assumed by the company, getting the requisite consents and finally registering the company (Commission). As discussed with you a summary of the proposed corporate structure has been prepared. It should be reviewed carefully and approved by your accountant. Australian Law provides for the structuring of any business in four ways. 1. Sole trader: an individual trading on their own 2. Partnership: an association of people or entities carrying on a business together, but not as a company 3. Trust: an entity that holds property or income for the benefit of others 4. Company: a legal entity separate from its shareholders. Sole Trader Looking at the business of a sole trader, one realizes that the same is entered into by one owner. This owner gets the benefit of directly transacting with his clientele thereby creating a trust as between the business and the clientele. The tax obligations related to this business are subject to the personal rates of the business (Government). The only major disadvantage of this enterprise is that the owner is personally liable for the business liabilities of the company. This opens up the owner to lawsuits that are consequent from the company as the company is not a separate legal entity. A sole trader cannot also share the burden of management and costs with any other person (Lawyers). In relation to the Picture Framing business, you both want to be co-owners of the enterprise. This in effect renders this business structure nugatory as far as your proposed enterprise is concerned. Trust The other business enterprise that is provided for in Australia is in the nature of a Trust. A Trust is defined to be a business where the trustee conducts business for the benefit of ce rtain beneficiaries. This in effect means that at all times the trustee can only conduct business that is in the interest of the beneficiaries. The advantages of Trusts are that it minimizes the tax that is levied on the business as the income from the business can be directed at the beneficiary with the lowest income thereby

Global Warming Causes And Effects Analysis Environmental Sciences Essay

Global Warming Causes And Effects Analysis Environmental Sciences Essay Global warming is one facet of the broader term climate change. It is the increase in the average temperature of the Earths surface air and oceans from the mid-20th century, and the projected continuation. The Global warming is primarily the consequence of building up greenhouse gases in atmosphere. Emission rates for most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas, CO2, have increased 120-fold in the past 140 years. While in the 19th century, emissions were mostly from deforestation and the other land use changes, now they are predominantly from burning fossil fuels. As CO2 in the atmosphere has the lifetime of more than a century, the historic emissions play most important role as compared to the current concentrations in atmosphere. Increase in Global Temperature. Most of the increase in global temperatures since the mid-twentieth century are very likely due to the increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gases via enhanced greenhouse effect. The natural phenomena such as the solar variation combined with the volcanoes had a small warming effect since pre-industrial times to 1950 and small cooling effect from 1950 onwards. The Climate model projections summarized by IPCC indicate that the average global surface temperature would likely rise a further 1.2 to 6.4  Ã‚ °C (2.0 to 11.6  Ã‚ °F) during the twenty-first century. Role of Industrialisation. In the past 200 years, Europe, North America, and former Soviet Union, currently having only 20 percent of worlds population, have contributed in more than 85 percent of CO2 emissions. Direct product of industrialisation, emissions now is 7 billion tons of the carbon a year, or around one ton of carbon per head of worlds population. Emissions are very uneven. The per-capita North American emissions are 17 times those of Africa, ten times those of Asia and 2.4 times those of Europe. The Low gasoline prices and pervasive automobile culture in United States ensure that CO2 output, already highest in the world, is rising, while levels in Europe are stable or falling. Disparity in Emissions. Everyone is indeed responsible in some way or another but the largest contributors are developed nations. Today, developed countries like the United States, Germany, Japan and many others with only 26 percent of the Globes population, are responsible for more than 70 percent of accumulated green house gas pollution in atmosphere. If we take a global average, then each person on planet is responsible for emission of approx 6000 kg of GHG emissions every year. In the developed countries, it is 14,000 kg per person. USA tops the list with 24,000 kg per person, and at bottom of the list comes Chad with 30 kg per person. Causes Climatic Equilibrium. Earths climate changes in response, to external forcing, include variations in its orbit around the Sun, changes in the solar luminosity, atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations and volcanic eruptions. Detailed causes of the warming remain active field of research, although the scientific consensus is that increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases by human activity caused most of warming observed since start of industrial era. None of these effects of forcing are instantaneous. The thermal inertia of the Earths oceans and very slow responses of the other indirect effects mean that Earths current climate is surely not in equilibrium with forcing imposed. The Climate commitment studies indicate that even if the greenhouse gases were stabilized on 2000 levels, a further warming of approximately 0.5  Ã‚ °C (0.9  Ã‚ °F) will still occur. Natural. The natural causes that contribute to global warming are as follows:- Change in suns energy output. Volcanoes. Water vapour. Cloud cover. However these natural causes have been regularly countered by the natural process of degeneration and Earths temperature has been varying within a fixed margin for last hundreds of years. Human Activity. From old times people suspected that the human activity could change climate. For example, in 19th century many Americans did believe that cutting down forests would bring more rainfall to a region. Amongst the mainstream scientific community, there is no doubt that Earth is warming, and increasing evidence shows that the humans have a significant part in it. Greenhouse Phenomenon The major reason of global warming is the emission of the green house gases like methane, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide etc into atmosphere. The gases in atmosphere like carbon dioxide, water vapour, tropospheric ozone, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), methane and nitrous oxide trap energy from sun. Without these gases, heat will escape back into the space and Earths average temperature will be about 60 °F colder. So absorbing and reflecting infrared waves being radiated by Earth, the gases conserve heat as glass in a greenhouse works and are thus called as greenhouse gases. Source of Gases. Methane is a much more effective greenhouse gas than CO2, but the concentration is much smaller, and total radiative forcing is only about one fourth of that from the carbon dioxide. Some other naturally occurring gases contribute small fractions of the greenhouse effect; one of these, nitrous oxide (N2O), is increasing in concentration owing to human activity such as agriculture. Carbon Dioxide. It is the major source of power plants. These power plants emit large quantity of carbon dioxide produced by burning the fossil fuels for generation of electricity. About twenty one percent of carbon dioxide emitted in the atmosphere comes from burning of gasoline in the engines of the vehicles. Methane. Methane is more than 20 times as effectual as CO2 at entrapping heat in the atmosphere. Methane is obtained from resources such as bovine flatulence ,rice paddies, bacteria in bogs and fossil fuel manufacture. When fields are flooded, anaerobic situation build up and the organic matter in the soil decays, releasing methane to the atmosphere. Nitrous Oxide. Main sources of nitrous oxide are nylon and nitric acid, the cars with catalytic converters, use of fertilizers in agriculture and burning organic matter. Effect. The greenhouse effect is important. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would not be warm enough for humans to live. But if the greenhouse effect becomes stronger, it could make the Earth warmer than usual. Even a little extra warming may cause problems for humans, plants, and animals. Present atmospheric concentration of CO2 is about 390 parts per million (ppm) in volume. Future levels are expected to increase due to ongoing burning of the fossil fuels and land-use change. The rate of increase will depend on uncertain sociological, economic, natural , and technological developments, but may be ultimately limited by the availability of fossil fuels. Deforestation. Another cause of global warming is deforestation that is caused by cutting and burning of forests for the purpose of residence and industrialization. Solar Variation. A varying hypothesis is that the variations in solar output, possibly being amplified by cloud seeding by galactic cosmic rays, would have contributed to recent warming. It is suggested that magnetic activity of the sun is a very crucial factor which deflects the cosmic rays that influencing the generation of cloud condensation nuclei and therefore affect the climate. Effects Of Global Warming The effects of global warming are very large in number and still there are so many that are still to be found out. But recently the problems have become visible and evident because of happening of events that were before only talked off. Although it may be difficult to connect weather events to global warming, a rise in global temperatures may therefore cause following major changes:- Glacial Retreat and Arctic Shrinkage. As an effect of global warming the glaciers are retreating at an alarming rate and changing the entire environment of the mountains. This will bring about the most intense climatic changes and alteration in the habitat. There will be a considerable increase in the water level of oceans and seas as a result of melting of glaciers. Rise in Sea Level. Worldwide sea level rise of 180 to 590 millimetres (0.59 to 1.9  ft) in 2090-2100 relative to 1980-1999. This increase in level of seas and oceans will engulf land at the coastal areas and some low lying countries may even become submerged. Extreme Weather Conditions. Changes in the amount and pattern of precipitation may result in flooding and drought. Floods in the areas without the flood history, is not very common. There are droughts in various places, having good rainfall earlier. Atmosphere gets suddenly very rough in the terms of thunderstorms and cyclones. In the future there are rapid temperature changes expected to occur which will affect length of the seasons. Winters will be quite short. This will indeed imbalance the ecosystem and will therefore effect greatly the attitudinal behavior of the the animals and birds. Vegetation. Another major effect of global warming would be on the vegetation that is present on the earth surface. Tundra type of vegetation would turn to temperate, and evergreen type of forest. Woody plant population may tend to increase, as a result of rise in precipitation. There would be a dramatic change in all the type of vegetations available in the areas, which will in turn impact the inhabitation of area. Wild Life. Various species are on the verge of extinction due to global warming. Major changes are often seen in the animals as they do react to the warmer environment, which are effected due to global warming. A behavior pattern of these animals when studied shows that animals are beginning to shift their major population towards north, or towards a higher altitudes. (f) Marine Life. The marine life is undoutedly very sensitive to the rise in temperatures. The effect of global warming will surely be seen on many species in the water. As a result many species will die off, or go extinct due to the rise in the temperatures of water, whereas many other species, which prefer the warmer waters, will be on increase tremendously. Perhaps the most annoying changes are expected in coral reefs that are expected to now die off as an effect of the global warming. Due to the melting of polar ice the life cycle is getting disturbed and this leads to death of many an animal. Increase in Diseases. Lately, as an effect of the global warming various new diseases have emerged. These diseases are occurring frequently due to the increase in earths average temperature since the bacteria can survive easily in elevated temperatures and multiply faster when the conditions become favorable. Due to global warming, the distribution of mosquitoes is being extended owing to the increase in humidity levels and so their frequent growth in the warmer atmosphere. Various diseases are expected due to Ebola, Hanta and Machupo virus owing to warmer climates. The global warming is sure to cause irreversible changes in ecosystem and the behaviour of animals. Other Effects. These include changes in the agricultural yields, reduced summer stream flows and, addition of new trade routes, possible slowing of thermohaline circulation, resultant reductions in the ozone layer and the lowering of ocean pH. (j) Extinction of Plants and Animals. According to an international study a quarter of land animals and plants may become extinct if global warming continues unchecked. The study reveals that as the earth hots up, all species may not be able to physically migrate to new locations. This will lead to smaller habitats for far fewer species. Rare and endangered species will generally move closer to extinction. (k) Damage to the Natural Environment. Glaciers, coral reefs and atolls, mangrove swamp, tropical forests, polar and alpine grasslands are likely to undergo significant damage. (l) Shortage of Water. Water shortage, which affects approximately 1.7 billion people today, will affect 5.4 billion people in 25 years, according to a study. (m) Effect on Food Supplies. Food supplies are likely to be affected with grain yields falling across Africa and deserts spreading. Yields are likely to fall in Asia too and subsistence farming in Latin America will be damaged. (n) Loss of Human Life. According to the study more than 160,000 people die globally ever year due to the side effects of climate change. Heat waves are likely to kill more people, particularly among the elderly and urban population. (o) Floods and Droughts. As global warming increases the frequency of rapid precipitation, protracted droughts and floods will increase. There will be heavier rainfall across northern Europe- increasing the risk of floods- and lower rainfall over northern Africa and Australia. (p) Disrupted Energy Demand Patterns. Global warming would result in hotter and drier summers, decrease in the soil moisture, coastal erosion, lower the snowfall, ,increased flooding, and disrupted energy demand patterns . 13. Effects on India. The assessed India specific effects are as under :- (a) Decreased snow cover, affecting snow-fed and glacial systems such as the Ganges and Bramhaputra. 70% of the summer flow of the Ganges comes from meltwater Erratic monsoon with serious effects on rain-fed agriculture, peninsular rivers, water and power supply. Drop in wheat production by 4-5 million tones, with even a 1 °C rise in temperature, (d) Increased frequency and intensity of floods. Increased vulnerability of people in coastal, arid and semi-arid zones of the country (e) Studies indicate that over 50% of Indias forests are likely to experience shift in forest types, adversely impacting associated biodiversity, regional climate dynamics as well as livelihoods based on forest products. (f) According to Head of the IPCC, Dr. R.K. Pachauri, the climate change could adversely affect India. By 2100, higher sea-level on the eastern coast could lead to the disappearance of Sunderbans. (g) In India, the region most vulnerable to accelerated sea level rise is the low-lying coral atolls of the Lakshadweep archipelago. (h) Experts feel that the Indian coast is more vulnerable to storm surge than the West coast. Nearly one-third of the human population living within 60 kilometers of the coast could be lost due to the rise in sea level. (j) Glaciers are receding at a faster rate in India. Researchers have found that the Gangotri glacier which feeds the Ganges is retreating at a faster rate than before. The melting of Himalayan glaciers would adversely impact 500 million people residing on the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins. As glaciers are frozen reservoirs of water, their melting would lead to a decrease in water, affecting drinking water supply, irrigation and hydropower. (k) There would be precipitation changes all over India, weather would be more erratic and post monsoon rainfall would become uncertain, according to Dr. Pachauri. (l) According to Prof. M.S. Swaminathan, the ecological and economic damage arising out of global warming would have an adverse impact on agriculture, which was the mainstay of the country. The erratic weather could cause damage to crop patterns leading to an adverse impact on food security. (m) The IPCC report has estimated that India could bear a huge loss of bio-diversity because of greater greenhouse emissions.

Beware of the Long Load Time Problem when You Buy a Website Essays

Buying a Website? Beware of the Long Load Time Problem Numerous studies have show that, while most web designers use fast internet connections, the majority of their audience still use comparatively slower connections. Because of this, many designers create web pages that may load quickly enough on their own computers, but take excessively long to load on their audiences' computers. Many web designers have not dealt with this issue on their websites, resulting in the loss of a valuable audience, even though numerous ways of dealing with the long load time problem exist. The largest cause of long page load times is the graphical content of the webpage. While text generally does not take too long to load over most connections, images can adversely affect even the fastest connection speeds when used incorrectly. Because websites use images more than almost any other media, this problem affects web designing decisions for practically every website created. Many web designers use large, full-quality graphics on their websites, which often take up much of the page. These images, while very attractive, do not justify the long time they require to load. In addition, many designers use full screen graphical interfaces for their sites. Even when text is the main component of these pages, the graphical interface slows the load time to a crawl. This forces viewers interested only in the text to wait unjustifiably long for the graphical interface to load first. For websites created for image viewing, there are often numerous, large, high-quality images placed on a single page in a giant column. Even if a viewer wants to observe just one of these images, they must wait for the other unwanted images to load as well. All of these problems caus... ...o a different page. Many thumbnails can be placed on a single page, and their small size and high compression do not lengthen load times significantly. A thumbnail also gives viewers a preview of what the larger, full-quality image will look like if they click on a thumbnail, allowing them to decide beforehand if it is worth their time. In summary, too many webpage designers are misusing images in ways that cause websites to load far too slowly. They should instead take advantage the many solutions available for solving this problem when designing and implementing their sites. By not doing so, designers frustrate viewers and lose a valuable audience. Utilizing techniques for decreasing webpage load time will help web designers to expand their audiences and viewers to enjoy websites more fully, proving beneficial to those on both sides of the long load time problem.

The Theme of Deception in Othello

THE THEME OF DECEPTION The theme of deception is one of the central themes that is shown through-out the play of â€Å"Othello† written by William Shakespeare. The idea of deception and decieving is surrounded by the character of Iago, the master mind behind all the deception. It is through the character of Iago that the readers are able to visualise just how badly the doing's of deception can effect and ruin those whom are being decieved. Through this essay i will explore how Iago effects the other characters through-out the play as well as showing the concequences it had on them due to their flaws.The idea of deception is found early on in the play when Iago says â€Å"I follow him to serve my turn upon him† showing us that he is just using Othello's trust and friendship for his own personal needs. Iago follows on by saying â€Å"I am not what I am†. This clearly shows the readers what Iago's true intentions are. The ability to â€Å"seem something† but to â€Å"be something else† allows the readers to be manipulated into thinking that Iago is of a â€Å"honest† nature.Iago's true intentions of decieving everyone who is close to him allows us to see just how deceptive and manipulative Iago is. His level of betrayal clearly indicates that he is alining himself with the devil by sneaking around and hiding secrets from those we consider his family and friends. This is because he goes out of his way to decieve and betray the other characters showing that Iago is the exact opposite to what he is known as, â€Å"honest Iago† without anyone actually being aware of what is happening around them.Each of the characters in the play â€Å"Othello† are each decieved in their own way whether it be the plotting of seeds, or the manipulation of emotions each of the characters vulnerbilities are tested by Iago's actions. One character that is constantly decieved and mislead by iago's words is Roderigo. Roderigos is a nai ve, young character that lets his love for Desdemona over rule all his thoughts and judgements. His downfall of being naively inlove allows Roderigo to be an easy target for Iago by manipulating him into believing that money could buy Desdemona's love. â€Å"Go to;

Electronic Databases and Networking Research paper essays

Electronic Databases and Networking Research paper essays An electronic database is information stored so that it can be retrieved from a computer terminal. Rubin, Rubin, and Piele (1996), compilers of research sources, point out, A researcher who is reluctant to use computers to find information or who does not know how to do so effectively will be severely handicapped. The advantages of college library electronic databases are that they can be searched much more quickly than their print counterparts, results can be printed or downloaded onto a floppy disk, and at most schools the use of databases is free of charge. Depending of the size of your library, you may have access to such self-service databases as ERIC (700 educational journals and thousands of research reports collected by the U.S Department of Education), INFOTRAC Expanded Academic Index (more than 1,000 journals and newspapers emphasizing communication, history, humanities, law, political science, psychology, religion, sciences, social sciences, and sociology), MEDLINE (some 3,600 journals in biomedicine, health sciences, and medicine), PSYCLIT (more than 1,400 English and foreign-language journals in education, psychology, and sociology), SOCIOFILE (communication, criminal justice, demography, geography, political science, sociology, and speech), and LEXIX/NEXIS (accounting, business, government, law, and medicine) to name just a few. You can use these databases to compile bibliographies and view abstracts, or even full articles, on the computer screen. Reference librarians should know which databases your library subscribes to and can help you learn to access them. Today, anyone with access to personal computer also has access to national and international electronic networks. Most colleges and universities are now connected to the Internet- an international electronic network of networks. This superhighway of information provides access to an ever-increasing number of infor ...

Differences Between Fordist And Post-Fordist Work Essays

Differences Between Fordist And Post-Fordist Work Essays Differences Between Fordist And Post-Fordist Work Paper Differences Between Fordist And Post-Fordist Work Paper This essay will be examining the conceptual framework of both Fordism and Post Fordism alike. It will be examining how Fordism began, and how through many different changes, both within the industrial sector as well as Society as a whole, there was a switch to Post Fordism. It will incorporate my own experiences of working in retail, in order to demonstrate how I perceive the way in which Post Fordism is evident in the workplace, in addition to demonstrating that, Fordism has not been totally replaced and is still present in more ways than one. Fordism refers to the system of consumption and mass production characteristic of highly developed economies during the nineteen forties, right through until the nineteen sixties. Under Fordism, there was mass consumption combined with mass production, which produced sustained economic growth and widespread material advancement. The 1970s-1990s however have been a period of slower growth and increasing income inequality. During this period of time, the system of organisation of production and consumption has, almost, undergone a second transformation. This new system is often referred to as the flexible system of production or the Japanese management system. On the production side, the flexible system of production is characterised by remarkable reductions in information costs and expenses, total Quality Management, just-in-time inventory control, and leaderless work groups. On the consumption side: by the globalisation of consumer goods markets; faster product life cycles; far greater product/market segmentation and differentiation. Henry Ford, (born 1863- died 1947) founded the Ford Motor Company in 1903. In 1908 the company initiated the production of the Model-T, of which the company sold 15million. It was the first car of its kind to built using a new type of production. Fordism involves the mass production of consumer durables, which are made on moving assembly line techniques operated with the semi-skilled labour of the mass worker. Before cars were produced by hand which was both time consuming and very expensive. The actual physical production of the car was also a problem due to numerous parts involved, the Model T took only 12. hours per car to be built from start to finish, a build time which would have been impossible to sustain on a continuous basis before. It was from this new process of the production line that Fordism took its name. Henry Ford had come up with a way of producing cars that broke the overall production process down into hundreds and sometimes thousands of small, individualised, highly-specialised, parts. By introducing a complex division of labour, Ford r easoned (correctly) that costs could be lowered and profits increased. The production was a new way of thinking and doing, helped made possible by new advances in machinery. Fordism, or Henry Fords new ideas of manufacturing, came about as a solution to a problem: that of how to increase the amount produced and decrease the time needed to produce it. He saw the existing methods of production as being slow, laborious and inefficient. Previously, workers had been highly skilled and because of these specialised skills, they were highly paid. This however, was all about to change. Fords main contributions to mass production/consumption were in the area of process engineering. The hallmark of his system was standardisation. Standardised components, standardised manufacturing processes, and a simple, easy to manufacture and repair, standard product. Ford had done this by employing a workforce that needed the minimal training, and had little skills. Fords first factory was at River rouge in Detroit. The management principals that were in place at that time were that of intensive work-planning and close supervision of the workers. The job involved very little training, and involved the employee to insert a car part into a machine, to which the machine carried out the work, not the employee. Ford regulated how the employees worked, in the sense that he would calculate the speed at which an employee took to carry out a particular task, and then a standard was set. He carried out Time and Motion studies in order to ensure that there was maximum efficiency on the production line, in order to minimise waste. Anyone who didnt comply or couldnt keep up with the times set was dismissed. Ford took great pleasure hiring and firing, often replacing older employees, with younger, faster, more efficient employees. He also had many rules, such as no talking and whispering with fellow employees, as he felt that this distracted them from their work. Others however believed that due to his paranoid nature, he did not want his employees conspiring against his work ethics. Because the job was so repetitive, and restrictive to the employee, morale was also low and the staff turnover was high. This prompted Henry Ford to introduce the Five Dollar a Day. This was a relatively high wage level, however it could only be obtained when the worker had worked for a continuous six months and complied with all the rules that were in place at that time. Henry Ford decided that this was the best way to get the workers to work at the speed, and in the way that he wanted. And so Fordism began. It basically meant that the workforce should be recognised as a valuable, integral part of the production of a product, rather that being treated as a commodity to be kept at arms length. If the workers feel valued and appreciated, then they are much more likely to work harder, with a lot more thought put into their work However, during the great depression in the States, during the nineteen twenties and thirties, there was very little disposable income. Therefore, this meant that there was no longer a great demand for the Ford car. Furthermore, people had become tired of owning the same car as their friends and neighbours, and longed for a change, and a break from the norm. After the depression, during the Long Boom (1945-1970+), the Fordism way of working was no longer seen as a way of treating employees, as well as a way of working and managing working production. After this period, the white collar professionals replaced the assembly line worker in totally new line of work. This was done through the introduction of hi-technology companies, and a great influx in communications and marketing. Scientists, academics and university graduates, who had the skills to invent new information technologies, took the power away from the industrialists and bureaucrats, who for so long had dominated with economic power. The post-Fordist division of the work-force between a skill-flexible core and a time-flexible periphery, which is now replacing the old manual/non-manual distinction, underlies a shift from the post-war vision of a one-nation mass consumption system to a two-nations model based on the affluent flexible worker plus a social security state (Jessop et al. 1987: 109-10) The period of Post-Ford has also witnessed the introduction of better-paid jobs, which, unlike Fordism, also hold better job security. Skilled workers were also better paid and as such a far greater amount of people were taking up places at university, where the end result of an Honours degree meant that many were employed by large companies to design and build robots, which would slowly take over the work of previous employees. Many Functionalists would say that this change, from Fordism to Post Fordism was a momentous step, in the sense that things are changing for employees, and employers for the better. Through perks at work such as work incentives, as well as extra pay for working unsociable hours etc, workers nowadays, in all lines of work, feel that they have received a better deal. From the bin man, who is now referred to as the refuse collector, to the shop worker, who is now referred to as a sales advisor, most would agree that not only standards in the workplace have went up, but also morale, and how people view their jobs. But is this the case? Through examining my own experiences of work, it is apparent that yes, things have changed for better, but also for worse. And that often, the unsuspecting employee is being exploited and demoralised by Post Fordism, all in the name of profits. Whilst working in Marks Spencer before beginning university, employees were subjected to both indirect as well as direct forms of conformity, in every aspect of work. From the first day of work, employees had details of themselves taken for Marks Spencers uses only. These included broad details of Address, and bank account, right through to personal details about health and fitness. At which, on receipt of these, the company knew practically every detail about the employee, and therefore could run checks etc. n them without their knowledge. Employees were then initiated into the company by means of videos, depicting other employees who were so appreciative to Marks Spencer for the conditions and perks that they have in their job. In addition to this was a video in which the Managing Director thanked the new employees for deciding to work for the company. They w ere also told that their work would be well valued and appreciated, and that anything positive they do within the company would go towards prolonging the quality of the company. New employees were then given new, identical uniforms to each other and sent down to work on the shop floor where the policy is The customer is always right, and after watching the videos and being in receipt of the numerous pep talks, each felt they owed a duty to the company.. The Sales Advisor job, to many, is a more sophisticated term for shop worker, however most employees take the term seriously. Contracts were given strictly on a temporary basis. In that there was never any job security, because, employees were employed under the agreement that they would receive a trial run, so-to-speak. And when the period of employment that they had worked was up, they would be graded accordingly, in terms of how they spoke to and listened to customers, and managers alike, the employees appearance and attitude to working, and also most importantly, how hard they worked. Most contracts were given for a maximum of 8 to 10 weeks, and in this time, any employee that had three days of absence was told that their contract would not be renewed, regardless of how they performed in the other criteria of how they worked, i. . timekeeping and appearance. As mentioned previously, the employees wear identical uniforms to each other; this is to suppress individuality and to promote a sense that everyone is equal. Managers however wear smart suits, and show their superiority over the shop floor workers, making them aware that although everyone is important in their own way, some are a lot more important than others, and therefore should receive more respect, in terms of how they are spoken to and treated. During the Marks Spencer revamp during 1998, it was customary for the top managers to come down to the shop floor to engage in conversations with the floor workers about what they thought of the overhaul, giving the impression that the floor workers opinions counted. When in actual fact, the plans had already been drawn up, and so basically, what the managers were doing was to try to boost staff morale, with little impact. New staffs were unable to join the Union as it was thought that they should be on a permanent contract before they joined up, therefore it was hard for someone to voice concern or a complaint. Sales advisors are kept under close guard, in the sense that, there were hi-Tec CCTV cameras, strategically placed around the store, with extra cameras placed in front and behind every till, to record every move. Talking to fellow employees was discouraged, and only permitted if it was work related and relevant to that particular point in time. Although employees were initially welcomed and made to feel like an asset to the company, very soon this appreciation, turned to suspicion and distrust. However, through the intervention of CCTV and Managers, employees and their actions are scrutinised at every move, without them realising it. Overall, this essay has aimed to explain how social relations within the workplace are a result of Fordism and also post Fordism. It is evident that although Fordism proved not to be an acceptable or effective way of treating employees, it wasnt totally off tract. Now days, where Post Fordism is evident almost everywhere, it is apparent that the conceptual framework of Fordism still plays a major role in the company policies of many workforces, from the corner shop, to the large corporations, where keeping the employee on their toes and scrutinising their every move ensures that profits and sales remain high. Employees are ideologically conditioned into believing that they are working for the good of a company, who respects and values what they do. In some cases this is true, but in most cases employees are there merely to boost profits, and are easily replaceable, as they are more than aware of.

Market Power (Business Enviroment Module) Essay

Market Power (Business Enviroment Module) - Essay Example In order to keep this in check, various agencies have been established in US to control the abuse of market power by organizations. The key agency is the Department of Justice’s Antitrust Division. The three major federal antitrust laws are the Sherman Antitrust Act, the Clayton Act, and the Federal Trade Commission Act. The mission of Antitrust Division is to protect the consumers against unreasonable competition practices of organizations that result in higher product and service prices. The most implemented law by the Antitrust Division is the Sherman Antitrust Act. Under this act, Section 2 explains that it is illegal to â€Å"monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations† (Vickers, 2005). The other agency instituted to govern the market power is Federal Trade Commission (FTC). This agency deals with the issues that protect consumers while controlling the competition by preventing unfair competition. The FTC along with Department of Justice Antitrust Division pursues effective laws that pursues customers’ interests, develops policies and practices for consumers and businesses in the country’s market place as well globally. The FTC’s work is however performed by the Bureau’s of Consumer Protection, Competition and Economics. The above two agencies implement laws both on the regional and national level. In addition to this, many different independent government agencies have been set up to control various inter-state competitions. For the regulation of communications either by radio, television, satellite, cable, telephone and so on a Federal Communication Commission has been set up. For the regulation of competition and consumer protection in natural gas, oil, and electricity Federal Energy Regulatory

The Lady of Shalott by Alfred Tennyson Research Paper

The Lady of Shalott by Alfred Tennyson - Research Paper Example In this ride, she sees all the worldly things which were forbidden to her, and on the way, she dies. As the boat reaches Camelot, all the knights see the corpse in the boat and make the sign of cross. However, Lancelot says that she has a lovely face. In fact, this work of Lord Tennyson came under serious attack for dealing with fantasy instead of reality (Noyes 134). However, an analysis of the underlying themes of the poem reveals that it contains a more realistic picture of the society than many realistic poems do. The most important theme evident in the work is deprivation. The deprivation appears in the work as a curse that the lady cannot look out of her window. She does not know the reason of the curse and does not care to think how to remove it. The poem says, â€Å"And so she weaveth steadily/And little other care has she† (Lord Tennyson, lines 43-44). Admittedly, various scholars give various meanings to this deprivation. To illustrate, Hollander points out that womanhood in the century is the subject (112). This seems a rational explanation because females were deprived of the right to see and interact with everyone and everything they wanted. In addition, the women of that time spent very little time thinking why this social situation prevailed. The woman, however, becomes sad and says, â€Å"I am half sick of shadows† (Lord Tennyson, line 72), when she notices that she is deprived of direct contact with all the worldly pleasures. Yet another argument that is as strong as the first one is that the theme describes how art is deprived of realistic pictures of society (Saintsbury 28). The poem shows the lady viewing only â€Å"shadows† of the real society and portraying the same in her tapestry. Here, it is possible to argue that Lord Tennyson was lamenting of his poem’s inability to deal with reality instead of fantasy. The picture becomes clearer when the

LEAN Principles Implemntation in Practice Essay

LEAN Principles Implemntation in Practice - Essay Example One of these methods is the Lean system, which was developed in Japan by Toyota automobile company to help improve its efficiency. Integration of the lean principles in a company’s operations is considered one of the potential approaches for improvement of organizational performance. The principles have been credited with improving manufacturing effectiveness in a number of Japanese companies but Toyota is still unrivalled in its application of Lean through its Toyota Production System (TPS). Many companies have learnt about Lean production principles both theoretically and practically from Toyota but many still face problems implementing Lean in their companies (Spear & Bowen, 1999). This paper explores the process of Lean implementation through all organization levels with the aim of improving performance. The paper starts by examining Lean principles and how they are applied in improvement of operations before discussing the implementation of the process in a construction company. While discussing the implementation of the model in the company, challenges that may be faced in the process will be highlighted as well as the limitation of the Lean approach in the construction industry. The paper proposes a potential perspective of the Lean approach that can be considered by managers in the construction industry for sustainable performance of companies. The Lean model of operations management first originated with Henry Ford when he developed a manufacturing concept that involved a continuous assembly line with workers playing specific roles in the process (Holweg, 2007). This was the first mass production approach in the automobile manufacture industry and it was aimed at improving efficiency as well as reducing fatigue of workers by letting them work on simpler repetitive tasks which they could master and become proficient in.

Control cycles-a general model Essay Example for Free

Control cycles-a general model Essay A general model of organizational control includes four components that can operate in a continuous cycle and can be represented as a wheel. These elements are: 1. Setting a goal. Project goal setting goes beyond overall scope development to include setting the project baseline plan. The project baseline is predicated on an accurate. Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) process. Remember that WBS establishes all the deliverables and work packages associated with the project, assigns the personnel responsible for them, and creates a visual chart of the project from highest level down through the basic task and subtask levels. The project baseline is created as each task is laid out on a network diagram and resources and time durations are assigned to it. 2. Measuring progress. Effective control systems require accurate project measurement mechanisms. Project managers must have a system in place that will allow them to measure the ongoing status of various project activities in real time. We need a measurement system that can provide information as quickly as possible. What to measure also needs to be clearly defined. Any number of devices allow us to measure one aspect of the project or another; however, the larger question is whether or not we are getting the type of information we can really use. 3. Comparing actual with planned performance. When we have some sense of the original baseline (plan) and a method for accurately measuring progress, the next step is to compare the two pieces of information. A gap analysis can be used as a basis for testing the project’s status. Gap analysis refers to any measurement process that first determines the goals and then the degree to which the actual performance lives up to those goals. The smaller the gaps between planned and actual performance, the better the outcome. In cases whe re we see obvious differences between what was planned an what was realized, we have a clear-cut warning signal. 4. Taking action. Once we detect significant deviations from the project plan, it becomes necessary to engage in some form of corrective action to minimize or remove the deviation. The process of taking corrective action is generally straightforward. Corrective action can either be relatively minor or may involve significant remedial steps. At its most extreme, corrective action may even involve scuttling a nonperforming project. After corrective action, the monitoring and control cycle begins again. The control cycle is continuous. As we create a plan, we begin measurement efforts to chart progress and compare stages against the baseline plan. Any indications of significant deviations from the plan should immediately trigger an appropriate response, leading to a reconfiguration of the plan, reassessment of progress, and so on. Project monitoring is continuous, full-time cycle of target setting, measuring, correcting, improving, and remeasuring. MONITORING PROJECT PERFORMANCE As we discovered in the chapters on project budgeting and resource management, once we have established a project baseline budget, one of the most important methods for indicating the ongoing status of the project is to evaluate it against the original budget projections. For project monitoring and control, both individual task budgets and the cumulative project budget are relevant. The cumulative budget can be broken down by time over the project’s projected duration. The Project S-Curve: A Basic Tool As a basis for evaluating project control techniques, let us consider a simple example. Assume a project (Project Sierra) with four work packages (Design, Engineering, Installation, and Testing), a budget to complete of $80,000, and an anticipated duration of 45 weeks. To determine project performance and status, a straightforward time/cost analysis is often our first choice. Here the project’s status is evaluated as a function of the accumulated costs and labor hours or quantities plotted against time for both budgeted and actual amounts. We can see that time (shown on the x, or horizontal, axis) is compared with money expended (shown on the y, or vertical, axis). The classic project S-curve represents the typical form of such a relationship. Budget expenditures are initially low and ramp up rapidly during the major project execution stage, before starting to level off again as the project gets nearer to its completion. Cumulative budget projections for Project Sierra have been plotted against the project’s schedule. The S-curve figure represents the project budget baseline against which budget expenditures are evaluated. Monitoring the status of a project using S-curves becomes a simple tracking problem. At the conclusion of each given time period (week, month, or quarter), we simply total the cumulative project budget expenditures to date and compare them with the anticipated spending patterns. Any significant deviations between actual and planned budget spent reveal a potential problem area. Simplicity is the key benefit of S-curve analysis. Because the projected project baseline is established in advance, the only additional data shown are the actual project budget expenditures. The S-curve also provides real-time tracking information in that budget expenditures can be constantly updated and the new values plotted on the graph. Project information can be visualized immediately and updated continuously, so S-curves offer an easy-to-read evaluation of the project’s status in a timely manner. (The information is not necessarily easily interpreted, however, as we shall see later.) Our Project Sierra example can also be used to illustrate how S-curve analysis is employed. Suppose that by week 21 in the project, the original budget projected expenditures of $50,000. However, our actual project expenditures totaled only $40,000. In effect, there is a $10,000 budget shortfall, or negative variance between the cumulative budgeted cost of the project and its cumulative actual cost. In the table it shows the track of budgeted expenditures with actual project costs, including identifying the negative variance shown at week 21. In this illustration, we see the value of S-curve analysis as a good visual method for linking project costs (both budgeted and actual) over the project’s schedule. S-CURVE DRAWBACKS When project teams consider using S-curves, they need to take the curve’s significant drawbacks into consideration as well as their strengths. S-curves can identify positive and negative variance (budget expenditures above or below projections), but they do not allow us to make reasonable interpretations as to the cause of variance. Consider the S-curve shown. The actual budget expenditures have been plotted to suggest that the project team has not spent the total planned budget money to date (there is negative   variance). However, the question is how to interpret this finding. The link between accumulated project costs and time is not always easily resolved. Is the project team behind schedule (given that they have not spent sufficient budget to date) or might there be alternative reasons for the negative variance? Assume that your organization tracks project costs employing an S-curve approach and uses that information to assess the status of an ongoing project. Also assume that the project is to be completed in 12 months and has a budget of $150,000. At the six-month checkup, you discover that the project S-curve shows significant shortfall; you have spent far less on the project to date than was originally budgeted. Is this good or bad news? On the surface, we might suppose that this is a sign of poor performance; we are lagging far behind in bringing the project along and the smaller the amount we have spent to date is evidence that our project is behind schedule. On the other hand, there are any number of reasons why this circumstance actually might be positive. For example, suppose that in running the project, you found a cost-effective method for doing some component of the work or came across a new technology that significantly cut down on expenses. In that case, the time/cost metric may not only be misused, but might lead to dramatically inaccurate conclusions. Likewise, positive variance is not always a sign of project progress. In fact, a team may have a serious problem with overexpenditures that could be interpreted as strong progress on the project when in reality it signals nothing more than their inefficient use of project capital resources. The bottom line is this: Simply evaluating a project’s status according to its performance on time versus budget expenditures may easily lead us into making inaccurate assumptions about project performance. Milestone Analysis Another method for monitoring project progress is milestone analysis. A milestone is an event or stage of the project that represents a significant accomplishment on the road to the project’s completion. Completion of a deliverable (a combination of multiple project tasks), an important activity on the project’s critical path, or even a calendar date can all be milestones. In effect, milestones are road markers that we observe on our travels along the project’s life cycle. There are several benefits to using milestones as a form of project control. 1. Milestones signal the completion of important project steps. A project’s milestones are an important indicator of the current status of the project under development. They give the project team a common language to use in discussing the ongoing status of the project. 2. Milestones can motivate the project team. In large projects lasting several years, motivation can flag as team members begin to have difficul ty seeing how the project is proceeding overall, what their specific contribution has been and continues to be, and how much longer the project is likely to take. Focusing attention on milestones helps team members become more aware of the project’s successes as well as its status, and they can begin to develop greater task identity regarding their work on the project. 3. Milestones offer points at which to reevaluate client needs and any potential change requests. A common problem with many types of projects is the nature of repetitive and constant change requests from clients. Using project review milestones as formal â€Å"stop points,† both the project team and the clients are clear on when they will take midcourse reviews of the project and how change requests will be handled. When clients are aware of these formal project review points, they are better able to present reasonable and well-considered feedback (and specification change requests) to the team. 4. Milestones help coordinate schedules with vendors and suppliers. Creating delivery dates that do not delay project activities is a common challenge in scheduling delivery of key project components. From a resource perspective, the project team needs to receive supplies before they are needed but not so far in advance that space limitations, holding and inventory costs, and in some cases spoilage are problems. Hence, to balance delays of late shipments against the costs associated with holding early deliveries, a well-considered system of milestones creates a scheduling and coordinating mechanism that identifies the key dates when supplies will be needed. 5. Milestones identify key project review gates. For many complex projects, a series of midterm project reviews are mandatory. For example, many proj ects that are developed for the U.S. government require periodic evaluation as a precondition to the project firm receiving some percentage of the contract award. Milestones allow for appropriate points for these review. Sometimes the logic behind when to hold such reviews is based on nothing more than the passage of time (â€Å"It is time for July 1 review†). For other projects, the review gates are determined based on completion of a series of key project steps (such as the evaluation of software results from the beta sites). 6. Milestones signal other team members when their participation is expected to begin. Many times projects require contributions from personnel who are not part of the project team. For example, a quality assurance individual may be needed to conduct systems tests or quality inspection and evaluations of work done to date. The quality supervisor needs to know when to assign a person to our project, or we may find when we reach that milestone that no on e’s available to help us. Because the QA person is not part of the project team, we need to coordinate his or her involvement in order to minimize disruption to the project schedule. 7. Milestones can delineate the various deliverables developed in the work breakdown structure and therefore enable the project team to develop a better overall view of the project. You then are able to refocus efforts and function-specific resources toward the deliverables that show signs of trouble, rather than simply allocating resources in a general manner. For example, indications that the initial project software programming milestone has been missed allows the project manager to specifically request additional programmers downstream, in order to make up time later in the project’s development. Problems with Milestones Milestones, in one form or another, are probably the simplest and most widely used of all project control devices. Their benefits lie in their clarity; it is usually easy for all project team members to relate to the idea of milestones as a project performance metric. The problem with them is that they are a reactive control system. You must first engage in project activities and then evaluate them relative to your goal. If you significantly underperform your work to that point, you are faced with having to correct what has already transpired. Imagine, for example, that a project team misses a milestone by a large margin. Not having received any progress reports up until the point that the bad news becomes public, the project manager is probably not in a position to craft an immediate remedy for the shortfall. Now, the problems compound. Due to delays in receiving the bad news, remedial steps are themselves delayed, pushing the project farther behind. EARNED VALUE MANAGEMENT An increasingly popular method used in project monitoring and control consists of a mechanism that has become known as Earned Value Management (EVM). The origins of EVM date to the late 1960s when U.S. government contracting agencies began to question the ability of contractors to accurately track their costs across the like of various projects. As a result, after 1967, the Department of Defense imposed 35 Cost/Schedule Control Systems Criteria that suggested, in effect, that any future projects procured by the U.S. government in which the risk of cost growth was to be retained by the government must satisfy these 35 criteria. In the more than 30 years since its origin, EVM has been practiced in multiple settings, by agencies from governments as diverse as Australia, Canada, and Sweden, as well as a host of project-based firms in numerous industries. Unlike previous project tracking approaches, EVM recognize that it is necessary to jointly consider the impact of time, cost, and project performance on any analysis of current project status. Put another way: Any monitoring system that only compares actual against budgeted cost numbers ignores the fact that the client is spending that money to accomplish something-create a project. Therefore, EVM reintroduces and stresses the importance of analyzing the time element in project status updates. Time is important because it becomes the basis for determining how much work should be accomplished at certain milestone points. EVM also allows the project team to make future projections of project status based on its current state. At any point in the project’s development we are able to calculate both schedule and budget efficiency factors (the efficiency with which budget is being used relative to the value that is being created) and use those values to make future projections about the estimated cost and schedule to project completion. We can illustrate the advance in the project control process that Earned Value represents by comparing it to the other project tracking mechanisms. If we consider the key metrics of project performance as those success criteria discussed in Chapter 1 (scheduling, budget, and performance), most project evaluation approaches tend to isolate some subset of the overall success measure. For example, project S-curve analysis directly links budget expenditures with the project schedule. Again, the obvious disadvantage to this approach is that it ignores the project performance linkage. Project control charts such as tracking Gantt charts link project performance with schedule but may give budget expenditures short shrift. The essence of a tracking approach to project status us to emphasize project performance over time. While the argument could be made that budget is implicitly assumed to be spent in some preconceived fashion, this metric does not directly apply a link between the use of time and performance factors with project cost. Earned value, on the other hand, directly links all three primary project success metrics (cost, schedule, and performance). This methodology is extremely valuable because it allows for regular updating of a time-phased budget to determine schedule and cost variances, as identified by the regular measurement of project performance. Terminology for Earned Value Following are some key concepts that allow us to calculate Earned Value and use its figures to make future project performance projections. PVPlanned value. A cost estimate of the budgeted resources scheduled across the project’s life cycle (cumulative baseline). EVEarned value. This is the real budgeted cost, or â€Å"value,† of the work that has actually been performed to date. ACActual cost of work performed. The cumulative total costs incurred in accomplishing the various project work packages. SPISchedule Performance Index. The earned value to date divided by the planned value of work scheduled to be performed (EV/PV). This value allows us to calculate the projected schedule of the project to completion. CPICost Performance Index. The earned value divided by the actual, cumulative cost of the work performed to date (EV/AC). This value allows us to calculate the projected budget to completion. BACBudgeted cost at completion. This represents the total budget for a project. Creating Project Baselines The first step in developing an accurate control process is to create the project baselines against which progress can be measured. Baseline information is critical regardless of the control process we employ, but baselines are elemental when performing EVM. The first piece of information necessary for performing earned value is the planned value; that is, the project baseline. The PV should comprise all relevant project costs, the most important of which are personnel costs, equipment and materials, and project overhead, sometimes referred to as level of effort. Overhead costs (level of effort) can include a variety of fixed costs that must be included in the project budget, including administrative or technical support, computer work, and other staff expertise use (such as legal advice or marketing). The actual steps in establishing the project baseline are fairly straightforward and require two pieces of data: the Work Breakdown Structure and a time-phased project budget. 1. The W ork Breakdown Structure identified the individual work packages and tasks necessary to accomplish the project. As such, the WBS allowed us to first identify the individual tasks that would need to be performed. It also gave us some understanding of the hierarchy of tasks needed to set up work packages and identify personnel needs (human resources) in order to match the task requirements to the correct individuals capable of performing them. 2. The time-phased budget takes the WBS one step further: It allows us to identify the correct sequencing of tasks, but more importantly, it enables the project team to determine the points in the project when budget money is likely to be spent in pursuit of those tasks. Say, for example, that our project team determines that one project activity, Data Entry, will require a budget of $20,000 to be completed, and further, that the task is estimated to require 2 months to completion, with the majority of the work being done in the first month. A ti me-phased budget for this activity might resemble the following: Activity| Jan| Feb| †¦| Dec| Total| Data Entry| $14,000| $6,000| | -0-| $20,000| Once we have collected the WBS and applied a time-phased budget breakdown, we can create the project baseline. The result is an important component of earned value because it represents the standard against which we are going to compare all project performance, cost, and schedule data as we attempt to assess the viability of an ongoing project. This baseline, then, represents our best understanding of how the project should progress. How the project is actually doing, however, is, of course, another matter. Why Use Earned Value? Assume that it is now week 30 of the project and we are attempting to assess the project’s status. Also assume that there is no difference between the projected project costs and actual expenditures; that is, the project budget is being spent within the correct time frame. However, upon examination, suppose we were to discover that Installation was only half-completed and Project Testing had not yet begun. This example illustrates both a problem with S-curve analysis and the strength of EVM. Project status assessment is only relevant when some measure of performance is considered in addition to budget and elapsed schedule. Consider the revised data for Project Sierra. Note that as of week 30, work packages related to Design and Engineering have been totally completed, whereas the Installation is only 50% done, and Testing has not yet begun. These percentage values are given based on the project team or key individual’s assessment of the current status of work package completion. The question now is: What is the earned value of the project work done to date? As of week 30, what is the status of this project in terms of budget, schedule, and performance? Calculating the earned value for these work packages is a relatively straightforward process. We can modify the previous table to focus exclusively on the relevant information for determining earned value. The planned budget for each work package is multiplied by the percentage completed in order to determine the earned value to date for the work packages, as well as for the overall project. In this case, the earned value at the 30-week point is $51,000. We can compare the planned budget against the actual earned value using the original project budget baseline. This process allows us to assess a more realistic determination of the status of the project when the earned value is plotted against the budget baseline. Compare this figure with the alternative method, in which negative variance is calculated, with no supporting explanation as to the cause or any indication about whether this figure is meaningful or not. Recall that by the end of week 30, our original budget projections suggested that $68,000 should have been spent. Instead, we are projecting a shortfall of $17,000. In other words, we are not only showing a negative variance in terms of money spent on the project, but also in terms of value created (performance) of the project to date. Unlike the standard S-curve evaluation, EVM variance is meaningful because it is based not simply on budget spent, but value earned. A negative variance of $10,000 in budget expenditures may or may not signal cause for concern; however, a $17,000 shortfall in value earned on the project to date represents a variance of serious consequences. Steps in Earned Value Management There are five steps in Earned Value Management (EVM): 1. Clearly define each activity or task that will be performed on the project, including its resource needs as well as a detailed budget.As we demonstrated earlier, the Work Breakdown Structure allows project teams to identify all necessary project tasks. It further allows for each task to be assigned its own project resources, including equipment and materials costs, as well as personnel assignments. Finally, coupled with the task breakdown and resource assignments, it is possible to create the budget figure or cost estimate for each project task. 2. Create the activity and resource usage schedules. These will identify the proportion of the total budget allocated to each task across a project calendar. Determine how much of an activity’s budget is to be spent each month (or other appropriate time period) across the project’s projected development cycle. Coupled with the development of a project budget should be its direct linkage to the project schedule. The determination of how much budget money is to be allocated to project tasks is important. Equally important is the understanding of when the resources are to be employed across the project’s development cycle. 3. Develop a â€Å"time-phased† budget that shows expenditures across the projects life.The total (cumulative) amount of the budget becomes the project baseline and is referred to as the planned value (PV). In real terms, PV just means that we can identify the cumulative budget expenditures planned at any stage in the project’s life. The PV, as a cumulative value, is derived from addin g the planned budget expenditures for each preceding time period. 4. Total the actual costs of doing each task to arrive at the actual cost of work performed (AC).We can also compute the budgeted values for the tasks on which work is being performed. This is referred to as the earned value (EV) and is the origin of the term for this control process. 5. Calculate both a project’s budget variance and schedule variance while it is still in process.Once we have collected the three key pieces of data (PV, EV, and AC), it is possible to make these calculations. The schedule variance is calculated by the simple equation: SV = EV – PV, or the difference between the earned value to date minus the planned value of the work scheduled to be performed to date. The budget, or cost, variance is calculated as: CV = EV – AC, or the earned value minus the actual cost of work performed. USING EARNED VALUE TO MANAGE A PORTFOLIO OF PROJECTS Earned Value Management can work at the portfolio level as well as with individual projects. The process simply involves the aggregation of all earned value measures across the firm’s entire project portfolio in order to give an indication as to the efficiency with which a company is managing its projects. Other useful information contained in the Portfolio Earned Value Management table includes the total positive variances for both budget and schedule, as well as determination of the relative schedule and cost variances as a percentage of the total project portfolio. The use of Earned Value Management for portfolio tracking and control offers top management an excellent window into the firm’s ability to efficiently run projects, allows for comparisons across all projects currently in development, and isolates both the positive and negative variances as they occur. All of this is useful information for top-level management of multiple projects.